Conservation Science Group

Department of Zoology

Toby Gardner

tobyagardner@gmail.com
Tel: +44 (0)1223 336675

Research Interests

I am interested in the ways in which science and the science-policy process can contribute to solving real-world social-environmental problems. What conceptual and empirical support is necessary to help reconcile conflicts over environmental resources, encourage genuine dialogue amongst decision makers and lead to lasting changes in human behaviour? 

My current work is focused on evaluating conservation-development trade-offs in different land-use systems in Brazilian Amazonia, under the auspices of the Sustainable Amazon Network (RAS) that I helped to found in 2009 (www.redeamazoniasustentavel.org). Working with a large team of collaborators we are sampling spatial patterns of biodiversity (terrestrial and aquatic), above and below-ground carbon, soil fertility and the economic and social benefits of agricultural and forestry activities across multiple watersheds that are characterized by different dominant land-uses, namely; cattle ranching; arable croplands; plantation forestry and selective logging of native forest. Field work is focused in two regions of eastern Amazonia (Santarém and Paragominas, Pará), both of which are currently undergoing rapid changes in land-use. The long-term goals of the project are to employ these data to evaluate opportunities for more sustainable development strategies in managed tropical forest landscapes, including both regulation and market based conservation strategies.

More broadly I am very interested in the ways in which conservation science is conducted, including how research priorities are identified and how scientific knowledge is shared and transferred among disciplines and between science and the process of managing ecosystems and developing environmental policy.
I am currently a NERC Postdoctoral Research Fellow (2009-2012) based at the Zoology Department of the University of Cambridge. In my current work I collaborate extensively with colleagues from many Brazilian research institutions, governmental and non-governmental agencies, as well as scientists from elsewhere across the world. The RAS project is being coordinated and developed in partnership with the Goeldi Museum and Embrapa (Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária) in Belém, Lancaster University and The Nature Conservancy (Amazonia program). Research is supported by funding from NERC, the Brazilian Research Council (CNPq), Embrapa, the UK government Darwin Initiative, The Nature Conservancy and the Royal Society.

Past research positions

April 08 – April 09. Postdoctorate Research Fellow, FAPEMIG. Setor de Ecologia, Departomento de Biologia, Universidade de Lavras, Brazil
Jan 08 – April 08. Visiting Scholar, Ecology Centre, University of Queensland, Australia.
August 2007 – December 2007 : Senior Research Associate, University of East Anglia. UK Government Darwin Initiative: “Devising strategies to integrate biodiversity conservation into plantation dominated landscapes”.
August 2003 – December 2003: Research Associate, Tyndall Centre for Climate Change, University of East Anglia: “Vulnerability of the Caribbean coastal zone to climate change”
August 2002 – June 2003: Research Associate, Tanzanian Wildlife Research Institute and University Davis, California: “ Evaluating the effectiveness of protected areas in western Tanzania”
Summer 2001, 2002: Expedition leader, Project Anuran, University Edinburgh; “Monitoring spatial and temporal patterns of amphibian community dynamics in Chiquibul Forest Reserve, Belize”

Education

2004-2007: PhD, School of Environmental Sciences “Understanding the consequences of habitat change for tropical forest biodiversity” Conferred 5th October 2007.
2001 - 2002 : MSc Applied Ecology and Conservation (Distinction), University of East Anglia: Thesis “Coral reefs of the tropical western Atlantic: a quantitative survey of recent temporal change and the relative importance of hurricane impacts”.
1997-2001: Ecological Science (Ecology) BSc 1st Class (Hons), University of Edinburgh. Thesis: “Tree-grass coexistence in the Brazilian cerrado: a modeling approach”.


Awards

  • 2012: British Ecological Society Founders Prize (awarded to an outstanding ecologist, early in their career who is making a significant contribution towards the science of ecology)
  • 2007: First Place Award Student Presentation; Society for Conservation Biology Annual Meeting, Port Elizabeth, South Africa
  • 2001: Elizabeth Sinclair Irvine Prize (Most Distinguished Ecologist, University of Edinburgh 2001 Honours Class)
  • June 2001: Botanical Society Scotland Prize (Most Distinguished Botanical Thesis, Scotland)

Top 5 selected publications

  • Garder, T.A., (2010). Monitoring Forest Biodiversity: improving conservation through ecologically responsible management. Earthscan, London.
  • Gardner, T.A., Barlow, J., Sodhi, N.S., Peres, C.A., (2010). A multi-region assessment of tropical forest biodiversity in a human-modified world Biological Conservation 143, 2293-2300. Editorial of Special Issue on biodiversity in human-modified tropical forest landscapes
  • Gardner, T.A., Barlow, J., Chazdon, R.L., Ewers, R., Harvey, C.A., Peres, C.A., Sodhi, N.S., (2009). Prospects for tropical forest biodiversity in a human-modified world. Ecology Letters 12, 561-582.
  • Gardner, T.A., Barlow, J., Araujo, I.S., Avila-Pires, T.C.S., Bonaldo, A.B., Costa, J.E., Esposito, M.C., Ferreira, L.V., Hawes, J., Hernandez, M.I.M., Hoogmoed, M., Leite, R.N., Lo-Man-Hung, N.F., Malcolm, J.R., Martins, M.B., Mestre, L.A.M., Miranda-Santos, R., Nunes-Gutjahr, A.L., Overal, W.L., Parry, L.T.W., Peters, S.L., Ribeiro-Junior, M.A., da Silva, M.N.F., da Silva Motta, C., Peres, C., (2008). The cost-effectiveness of biodiversity surveys in tropical forests. Ecology Letters 11, 139-150.
  • Gardner, T.A., Côté, I.M., Gill, J.A., Grant, A., Watkinson, A.R., (2003). Long-term region wide declines in Caribbean coral reefs. Science 301, 958-960.

Peer reviewed publications (published or in press)

Edited books

  • Peres, C.A., Barlow, J., Gardner, T.A., and Vieira, I.C.G. in press. Conservação da biodiversidade em paisagens florestais antropizadas do Brasil. Edited volume. Fundação O Boticário / Editora da Universidade Federal do Paraná. In Portuguese.

Book chapters

  • Parrotta, J.A. (Coordinating Lead Author), Gardner, T.A., Kapos, V., Kurz, W.A., Mansourian, S., McDermot, C.L., Strassbourg, B.N., Thompson, I.D., Vira, B., and Wildburger, C (Lead Authors). (2012). Introduction. In Understanding relationships between biodiversity, carbon, forests and people: the key to achieving REDD+ objectives, pp 13-20, eds Parrotta, J.A., Wildburger, C., and Mansourian, S. A Global Assessment Report. Prepared by the Global Forest Expert Panel on Biodiversity, Forest Management, and REDD+. IUFRO World Series Volume 31. Vienna. 161 p.
  • Thompson, I.D. (Coordinating Lead Author), Ferreira, J., Gardner, T.A., Guariguata, M., Koh, L.P., Okabe, K., Pan, Y., Schmitt, C.B., and Tylianakis, J. (2012). Forest biodiversity, carbon and other ecosystem services: relationships and impacts of deforestation and forest degradation. In Understanding relationships between biodiversity, carbon, forests and people: the key to achieving REDD+ objectives, pp 21-52, eds Parrotta, J.A., Wildburger, C., and Mansourian, S. A Global Assessment Report. Prepared by the Global Forest Expert Panel on Biodiversity, Forest Management, and REDD+. IUFRO World Series Volume 31. Vienna. 161 p.
  • Kapos, V., Kurz, W. and Gardner, T.A. (Coordinating Lead Authors), Ferreira, J., Guariguata, M., Koh, L.P., Mansourian, S., Parrotta, J.A., Sasaki, N. and Schmitt, C.B. (2012). Impacts of forest and land management on biodiversity and carbon. In Understanding relationships between biodiversity, carbon, forests and people: the key to achieving REDD+ objectives, pp 53-82, eds Parrotta, J.A., Wildburger, C., and Mansourian, S. A Global Assessment Report. Prepared by the Global Forest Expert Panel on Biodiversity, Forest Management, and REDD+. IUFRO World Series Volume 31. Vienna. 161 p.
  • Parrotta, J.A., Mansourian, S., and Wildburger, C. (Coordinating Lead Authors), Gardner, T.A., Kapos, V., Kurz, W.A., McDermot, C.L., Strassbourg, B.N., Thompson, I.D., and Vira, B. (Lead Authors). (2012). Conclusions. In Understanding relationships between biodiversity, carbon, forests and people: the key to achieving REDD+ objectives, pp 139-144, eds Parrotta, J.A., Wildburger, C., and Mansourian, S. A Global Assessment Report. Prepared by the Global Forest Expert Panel on Biodiversity, Forest Management, and REDD+. IUFRO World Series Volume 31. Vienna. 161 p.
  • Barlow, J., Gardner, T.A., Parry, L., Silveira, J.M., Louzada, J. and Peres, C.A. in press. Quantifying biodiversity in eucalyptus plantations and primary and secondary tropical forests: results from a multi-taxa comparison from the Brazilian Amazon. In Biodiversity conservation in agroforestry landscapes: challenges and opportunities, pp 44-59, eds J.A. Simonetti, A.A. Grez, C.F. Estades, Universidad de Chile press (Editorial Universitaria).
  • Gardner, T.A. in press. The Amazon in transition: the challenge of transforming the world's largest tropical forest biome into a sustainable social-ecological system. In Addressing Tipping Points, Eds. O'Riordan, T., Lenton, T., and Christie, I. Oxford University Press.
  • Pullin, A.S., Sutherland, W., Gardner, T.A., Kapos, V., and Fa, J.E. in press. Conservation priorities: identifying need, taking action and evaluating success. in Key Topics in Conservation, ed. MacDonald, D.
  • Nichols, L.S., Gardner, T.A. (2011). Dung beetles as a candidate survey taxon in applied biodiversity conservation research In Ecology and evolution of dung beetles. eds L.W. Simmons, T.J. Ridsdill-Smith, pp. 267-291. Blackwell London.
  • Koh, L. P. and Gardner, T. A., (2010) Conservation in human modified landscapes , in Conservation biology, pp236-261(eds N. S. Sodhi and P. E. Ehrlich) Oxford University Press

Journal articles

  • Gardner, T.A., Ferreira, J.F., Parry, L., Barlow, J., and 84 collaborators of the Sustainable Amazon Network. in press. A social and ecological assessment of tropical land-uses at multiple scales: the Sustainable Amazon Network. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society (Series B).
  • Pilgrim, J.D., Brownlie, S., Ekstrom, J.M.M., Gardner, T.A., von Hase, A., ten Kate, K., Savy, C.E., Stephens, R.T, Temple, H.J., Treweek, J., Ussher, G.T., and Ward, G. in press. A process for assesssing offsetability of biodiversity impacts. Conservation Letters. 
  • Balvanera, P. Uriarte, M.,  Almeida-Lenero, L., Altesore, A., DeClerck, F., Gardner, T.A., Hall, J., Lara, A. Laterra, P., Pena-Claros, M., Silva Maots, D.M., Romero-Duque, L.P., Vogl, A., Arreloa, L.F., Caro-Borrero, A.P., Gallego, F., Jain, M., Little, C., de Oliveira Xavier, R., Paruelo, J.M., Peinado, J.E., Poorters, L., Azcarrunz, N., Correa, F., Cunha-Santino, M.B., Hernandez-Sanchez, A.P., Vallejos, M. in press. Ecosystem services research in Latin America: the state of the art. Ecosystem Services.
  • Maron, M., Hobbs, R.J., Moilanen, A., Matthews, J.W., Christie, K., Gardner, T.A., Keith, D., Lindenmayer, D.B., and McAlpine, C.A. (2012). Faustian bargains? Restoration realities in the context of biodiversity offset policies. Biological Conservation, 155, 141-148.
  • Lees, A.V., de Moura, N.G., Santana, A., Aleixo, A., Barlow, J., Berenguer, E., Ferreira, J. and Gardner, T.A. in press. A quantitative baseline of an Eastern Amazonian avifauna. Ornitologia Neotropical.
  • Barlow, J., Gardner, T.A., Lees, A., Parry, L. and Peres, C.A. (2012). Developing evidence based arguments to assess the pristine nature of tropical forests. Biological Conservation, 152, 293-294.
  • Barlow, J., Parry, L., Gardner, T.A., Ferreira, J., Aragao, L.E.O.C., Carmenta, R., Berenguer, E., Vieira, I.C.G., Souza, C., and Cochrane, M.A. (2012). The critical importance of considering fire in REDD+ programs. Biological conservation, 154, 1-8
  • Gardner, T.A., Burgess, N.D., Aguiar-Amuschastegui, N., Barlow, J., Berenguer, E., Clements, T., Danielsen, F., Ferreira, J., Foden, W., Kapos, V., Khan, S.M., Lees, A.C., Parry, L., Roman-Cuesta, R.M., Schmitt, C.B., Strange, N., Theilade, I., Vieira, I.C.G. (in press). A framework for integrating biodiversity concerns into national REDD+ programmes. Biological Conservation, 154, 61-71. Distributed as an official Information Document in English, French and Spanish to parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity
  • Barlow, J., Gardner, T.A., Lees, A., Parry, L., and Peres, C.A. (in press). How pristine are tropical forests? An ecological perspective on the pre-Columbian human footprint in Amazonia and implications for contemporary conservation. Biological Conservation.
  • Caro, T., Evans, O., Fitzherbert, E.B., Gardner, T.A., Howell, K., Drewes, R., Shaffer, H.S. (2011). Reptiles of Katavi National Park, western Tanzania, are from different biomes. Journal of African Ecology. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2028.2011.01261.x
  • Gibson, L., Lee, M.L., Koh, L.P., Brook, B.W., Gardner, T.A., Barlow, J., Peres, C.A., Bradshaw, C.J.A., Laurance, W.F., Lovejoy, T.E. and Sodhi, N.S. (2011). Primary forests are irreplaceable for sustaining tropical biodiversity. Nature, 478, 378-381
  • Pardini, R., Bueno, A.d.A., Gardner, T.A., Prado, P.I., Metzger, J.P., (2010). Beyond the fragmentation threshold hypothesis: regime shifts in biodiversity across fragmented landscapes. PlOS One 5, e13666.
  • Gardner, T.A., Barlow, J., Sodhi, N.S., Peres, C.A., (2010). A multi-region assessment of tropical forest biodiversity in a human-modified world Biological Conservation 143, 2293-2300. Editorial of Special Issue on biodiversity in human-modified tropical forest landscapes
  • Barlow, J., Ewers, R., Anderson, L., Aragao, L. E. O. C., Baker, T. R., Boyd, E., Feldpausch, T. R., Gloor, E., Hall, A., Malhi, Y., Milliken, W., Mulligan, M., Parry, L., Pennington, T., Peres, C. A., Phillips, O. L., Roman-Cuesta, R. M., Tobias, J. A. and Gardner, T. A., (2010) Using learning networks to understand complex systems: A case study of biological, geophysical and social research in the amazon, Biological Reviews, 86,257-474.
  • Barlow, J., Gardner, T. A., Louzada, J. and Peres, C. A. (2010) Measuring the conservation value of tropical primary forests: The effect of occasional species on estimates of biodiversity uniqueness. PLOS One, 5
  • Barlow, J., Louzada, J., Parry, L., Hernandez, M. I. M., Hawes, J., Peres, C. A., Vaz-de-Mello, F. Z. and Gardner, T. A., (2010) Improving the design and management of forest strips in human-dominated tropical landscapes: A field test on amazonian dung beetles, Journal of Applied Ecology. 47, 779-788
  • Gardner, T.A., (2010). Monitoring biodiversity in certified forests. European Tropical Forest Research Network 51, 27-33
  • Louzada, J., Gardner, T.A., Peres, C. and Barlow, J. (2010) A multi-taxa assessment of nestedness patterns across a multiple-use amazonian forest landscap', Biological Conservation. 143, 1102-1109
  • Peres, C. A., Gardner, T. A., Barlow, J., Zuanon, J., Michalski, F., Lees, A. C., Vieira, I. C. G., Moreira, F. M. S. and Feeley, K. J. (2010) Biodiversity conservation in human-modified amazonian forest landscapes. Biological Conservation, 143, 2314-2327
  • Nicholson, E., Mace, G.M. Armsworth, P.R., Atkinson, G., Buckle, S., Clements, T., Ewers, R., Fa, J.E., Gardner, T.A., Gibbons, J. Grenyer, R., Metcalfe, R., Mourato, S., Muuls, M., Osborn, D., Peck, L., Reuman, D.C., Watson, C., and Milner-Gulland, E-J., (2009) Priority research areas for ecosystem services in a changing world Journal of Applied Ecology, 46, 1139-1144
  • Nichols, E., Gardner, T. A., Peres, C.A. and Spector, S. (2009) Co-declining mammals and dung beetles: an impending ecological cascade. Oikos 118:481-487.
  • Lo-Man-Hung, N. F., Gardner, T.A., Ribeiro Jr, M.A., Barlow, J. and Bonaldo, A.B. (2009) The value of primary, secondary and plantation forests for Neotropical epigeic arachnids. Journal of Arachnology 36:394-401.
  • Fischer, J., Peterson, G.D., Gardner, T.A., Gordon, L.J., Fazey, I., Elmqvist, T., Felton, A., Folke, C., and Dovers, S. (2009) Integrating resilience thinking and optimisation for conservation. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 24, 549-554.
  • Fisher, B., Bolt, K. Bradbury, R.B., Gardner, T. A, Green, J.M.H., Hold, D.G. and Naidoo, R. (2009) Two cultures of conservation Conservation Biology, 23,1069-1071.
  • Hawes, J., Motta, C.D., Overal, W.L., Barlow, J., Gardner, T.A., and Peres, C.A. (2009) Diversity and composition of Amazonian moths in primary, secondary and plantation forests. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 25, 281-300.
  • Barlow, J., Araujo, I.S. Overal, W.L., Gardner, T. A, da Silva Mendes, F., Lake, I. and Peres, C.A.  (2008) Diversity and composition of fruit-feeding butterflies in tropical Eucalyptus plantations. Biodiversity and Conservation, 17, 1089-1104.
  • Caro, T., Gardner, T. A, Stoner, C. Fitzherbert, E.B. and Davenport, T.R.B. (2008) Assessing the effectiveness of protected areas: paradoxes call for pluralism in evaluating conservation performance. Diversity and Distributions, 15, 178-182
  • Hawes, J., Barlow, J., Gardner, T.A., and Peres, C. (2008) The value of forest strips for understory birds in an Amazonian plantation landscape Biological Conservation, 141, 2262-2278.
  • Gardner, T.A., Hernández, M.M.I., Barlow, J., and Peres, C. (2008) Understanding the biodiversity consequences of habitat change: the value of secondary and plantation forests for neotropical dung beetles. Journal of Applied Ecology, 45, 883-893.
  • Ribeiro Jr, M. A., Gardner, T.A., and Avila-Pires, T.C.S. (2008) Evaluating the effectiveness of herpetofaunal sampling techniques across a habitat change gradient in a neotropical forest landscape. Journal of Herpetology, 42, 733-749.
  • Gardner, T. A., and Jones, J. (2008) An unprecedented opportunity for biodiversity conservation: Hopes and fears surrounding international payments for ecosystem services. Oryx, 42, 5.
  • Gardner, T.A., Barlow, J., Parry, L.T.W., and Peres, C.A. (2007) Predicting the uncertain future of tropical forest species in a data vacuum. Biotropica, 39, 25-30.
  • Gardner, T.A., Caro, T., Fitzherbert, E.B., Banda, T., and Lalbhai, P. (2007) Conservation value of multiple-use areas in East Africa. Conservation Biology, 21, 1516-1525.
  • Gardner, T.A., Ribeiro Jr, M.A., Barlow, J., Ávila-Pires, T.A.S., Hoogmoed, M., and Peres, C.A. (2007) The value of primary, secondary and plantation forests for a neotropical herpetofauna Conservation Biology, 21, 775-787.
  • Gardner, T. A., Fitzherbert, E.B., Drewes, R.C., Howell, K.M. and Caro, T. (2007) Spatial and temporal patterns of abundance and diversity of an East African amphibian fauna. Biotropica 39:105-113.
  • Gardner, T. A., Barlow, J. and Peres, C.A. (2007) Paradox, presumption and pitfalls in conservation biology: consequences of habitat change for amphibians and reptiles. Biological Conservation 138:166-179.
  • Bonaldo, A. B., Marques, M.A.L., Pinto de Rocha, R. and Gardner, T.A., (2007) Species richness and community structure of arboreal spider assemblages in fragments of three forest types at Banhado Grande wet plain, Gravatai River, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Iheringia 97:143-151.
  • Fitzherbert, E. B., Gardner,T.A., Caro, T. and Jenkins, P. (2007) Habitat preferences of small mammals in the Katavi ecosystem of western Tanzania. African Journal of Ecology, 48, 249-257.
  • Barlow, J., Gardner, T.A., et al. (2007) Quantifying the biodiversity value of tropical primary, secondary and plantation forests. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104, 18555-18560
  • Barlow, J., Gardner, T.A., Ferreira, L.V., and Peres, C.A. (2007) Litter fall and decomposition in primary, secondary and plantation forests in the Brazilian Amazon. Forest Ecology and Management, 247, 91-97.
  • Barlow, J., Overal, W.L., Araujo, I.S., Gardner, T.A., and Peres, C.A. (2007) The value of primary, secondary and plantation forests for fruit-feeding butterflies in the Brazilian Amazon. Journal of Applied Ecology, 44, 1001-1012.
  • Barlow, J., Mestre, L.A.M., Gardner, T.A., and Peres, C.A. (2007) The value of primary, secondary and plantation forests for Amazonian birds. Biological Conservation, 126, 212-231.
  • Côte, I. M., Gardner, T.A., Gill, J.A., Hutchinson, D.J. and Watkinson, A.R. (2006) New approaches to estimating recent ecological change on coral reefs. Pages 293-313 in I. M. Cote, and J. R. Reynolds, editors. Coral Reef Conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
  • Fitzherbert, E. B., Gardner,T.A., Davenport, T.R.B. and Caro, T. (2006) Butterfly species richness and abundance in the Katavi ecosystem of western Tanzania. African Journal of Ecology, 44, 353-362.
  • Ribeiro-Junior, M. A., Gardner, T.A. and Avila-Pires, T.C.S. (2006) The effectiveness of glue traps to sample lizards in a tropical rainforest. South American Journal of Herpetology, 1, 131-137.
  • Cote, I.M., Gill, J.A., Gardner, T.A., and Watkinson, A.R. (2005) Measuring coral reef decline through meta-analyses. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences, 360, 385-395
  • Gardner, T.A., (2006) Tree-grass coexistence in the Brazilian cerrado: demographic consequences of environmental instability. Journal of Biogeography, 33, 448-463.
  • Gardner, T.A., Gill, J.A., Grant, A., Watkinson, A.R., and Côté, I.M. (2005) Hurricanes and Caribbean coral reefs: immediate impacts, recovery trajectories and contribution to long-term decline. Ecology, 86, 174-184
  • Caro, T. M., Engilis, A., Fitzherbert, E.B and Gardner, T.A., (2004) Preliminary assessment of the flagship species concept at a small scale. Animal Conservation, 7, 1-8
  • Gardner, T. A., (2004) Limits to growth? - a perspective on the perpetual debate. Environmental Sciences, 1, 121-138
  • Gardner, T. A., Côté, I.M., Gill, J.A., Grant, A. and Watkinson, A.R. (2003) Coral reef decline in the Caribbean: Response to Buddemeir and Ware. Science, 302, 392-393.
  • Gardner, T. A., Côté, I.M. Gill, J.A., Grant, A. and Watkinson, A.R. (2003) Long-term region wide declines in Caribbean coral reefs. Science, 301, 958-960.
  • Gardner, T.A. (2001) Declining amphibian populations: a global phenomenon in conservation biology. Animal Biodiversity and Conservation, 24, 1-19

Book reviews

  • Gardner, T.A. (2004) Capturing carbon and conserving biodiversity - the market approach. Swingland, I.R. (Ed). Earthscan, London
  • Gardner, T.A. (2001) A field guide to the amphibians and reptiles of the Mayan world. Lee, J.L. Cornell University Press, New York

Policy documents

  • Gardner, T.A. and Carneiro, C. (2011) Building capacities of Amazon Treaty Cooperation (ACTO) member countries in ecologically responsible forest management and biodiversity conservation in managed forests of the Amazon. Project proposal document on behalf of the International Tropical Timber Organisation (ITTO) and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Collaborative Initiative. 
  • Gardner, T.A. and von Hase, A. (2011) Guidance on No Net Loss and Loss-Gain calculations in biodiversity offsets. Resource document for the Business and Biodiversity Offsets Program (BBOP), Forest Trends, Washington DC and the New Zealand Department of Conservation (DOC).
  • Ekstrom, J., Gardner, T.A. and ten Kate, T. (2008) The use of multipliers to deal with risk, uncertainty, time discounting and landscape conservation targets in biodiversity offset design. Consultation Paper for the Business and Biodiversity Offsets Program, Forest Trends, Washington DC.

 

 

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